Pathophysiology made incredibly visual pdf download

This buildup, called atherosclerosis, causes the vessels to narrow or become obstructed. Coronary arteries Coronary arteries supply blood to heart tissue.

They originate from the aorta. Normal coronary artery How it happens Aorta Coronary artery disease CAD results when atherosclerotic plaque fills the lumens of the coronary arteries and obstructs blood flow to the heart, diminishing the supply of oxygen and nutrients to the heart tissue. Inadequate control of hypertension, diabetes, and obesity; diet, exercise, and lifestyle changes are key to regaining control. Sex—CAD is more common in men until after age Kinfolk—Heredity is a nonmodifiable risk factor.

Smoking—The sooner stopped, the better. Feel OK? Last week Yerss. Can you give me a lift to the diseased valve tissues? You and your bacteria buddies have formed growths on all the heart valves. Heart failure may be classified as right-sided or left-sided. How it happens To the left! The backed-up blood causes pressure and congestion in the vena cava and systemic circulation. To the right! As the liver and spleen become engorged, their function is impaired.

Therefore, treatment guidelines are directed toward the specific cause. Hyperlipidemia, also called hyperproteinemia or lipid disorder, can be primary or secondary and occurs when excess levels of cholesterol, triglycerides, and lipoproteins are present in the blood. A closer look How it happens Cholesterol transport in the blood 1 2 Primary Very-low-density lipoprotein VLDL travels through the bloodstream, attaching to the lining of the capillaries.

There, its fatty core of cholesterol is drawn out. Hypertension occurs as essential primary hypertension or as secondary hypertension.

How it happens What to look for Several theories exist. Abnormally increased tone in the sympathetic nervous system causes increased TPR. Abnormal renin release results in formation of angiotensin II, which constricts the arterioles and increases blood volume. Age-old story Age and systolic hypertension Elderly people may have isolated systolic hypertension, in which just the systolic blood pressure is elevated, because atherosclerosis causes a loss of elasticity in large arteries.

As you get older, you lose elasticity—in your face and in your arteries! Retained sodium and water increase blood volume. Aldosterone 4 Angiotensin II causes arteriolar constriction and aldosterone secretion. Third-space fluid shift, which can occur in the abdominal cavity ascites , pleural cavity, or pericardial sac, can also cause hypovolemic shock.

How it happens 1 Blood pressure declines. Oxygen and nutrient delivery to cells decreases. Myocarditis is focal or diffuse inflammation of the cardiac muscle myocardium. It may be acute or chronic and can occur at any age. How it happens Damage to the myocardium occurs when an infectious organism triggers an autoimmune, cellular, and humoral reaction.

The resulting inflammation may lead to hypertrophy, fibrosis, and inflammatory changes of the myocardium and conduction system. The heart muscle weakens and contractility is reduced. The heart muscle becomes flabby and dilated, and pinpoint hemorrhages may develop.

Acute pericarditis can be fibrinous or effusive, with purulent, serous, or hemorrhagic exudate. Chronic constrictive pericarditis is characterized by dense, fibrous pericardial thickening. Common symptoms of pericarditis are pain at the sternum and shallow, rapid respirations. Macrophages, neutrophils, and monocytes in the tissue begin to phagocytose the invading bacteria.

These products are eventually reabsorbed into healthy tissue. I think someone forgot to shut off the aortic valve! Aortic insufficiency is the incomplete closure of the aortic valve. It can be acute or chronic and is usually caused by scarring or retraction of valve leaflets. In aortic insufficiency, blood flows back into the left ventricle during diastole, causing fluid overload in the ventricle, which dilates and hypertrophies.

The excess volume causes fluid overload in the left atrium and, finally, in the pulmonary system. Left-sided heart failure and pulmonary edema eventually result. It may be classified as: A R cquired heumatic. Increased left ventricular pressure tries to overcome the resistance of the narrowed valvular opening.

The added workload increases the demand for oxygen, and diminished cardiac output causes poor coronary artery perfusion, ischemia of the left ventricle, and left-sided heart failure. Blood from the left ventricle flows back into the left atrium during systole, causing the atrium to enlarge to accommodate the backflow. As a result, the left ventricle also dilates to accommodate the increased blood volume from the atrium and to compensate for diminishing cardiac output.

Ventricular hypertrophy and increased end-diastolic pressure result in increased pulmonary artery pressure, eventually leading to left-sided and right-sided heart failure. It occurs more frequently in women than in men. Mitral valve prolapse A view of the mitral valve from the left atrium shows redundant and deformed leaflets that billow into the left atrial cavity.

Dizziness, syncope, palpitations, chest pain, and heart murmur? Just as I suspected— mitral prolapse, I presume. Inflammation of the pericardium 2. An infection of the endocardium, heart valves, or cardiac prosthesis 3.

An abnormal dilation in the aortic arterial wall 4. An unchecked increase in pressure in the pericardial sac 5. Narrowing of the aortic valve 6. A disease of heart muscle fibers A. Cardiomyopathy Aortic stenosis Cardiac tamponade Endocarditis Aortic aneurysm Pericarditis Rebus riddle Solve the riddle to find an important fact about coronary artery disease.

A Rebus riddle Fatty deposits that accumulate in the arteries are called plaque. Ventricular fibrillation or standstill may occur. A closer look 1 Phase In phase 1, injury reduces normal blood flow to the lungs. Platelets aggregate and release histamine H , serotonin S , and bradykinin B. Fluids then shift into the interstitial space. Trauma-related factors, such as fat emboli, pulmonary contusions, and multiple transfusions, may increase the likelihood that microemboli will develop.

As a result, alveoli collapse, impeding gas exchange and decreasing lung compliance. Oxygen O2 and CO2 levels decrease in the blood. Use the abbreviation for ARDS to remember key treatments. It causes episodic airway obstruction resulting from bronchospasms, increased mucus secretion, and mucosal edema. Asthma is one type of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease COPD , a long-term pulmonary disease characterized by airflow resistance.

Cases of asthma continue to rise. It currently affects an estimated 17 million Americans; children account for 4. A case of exposure How it happens Allergens 2 Allergens are absorbed into the tissues. Immune cell 1st exposure 1 Allergens may enter through the nose and mouth. One-third of patients develop asthma from ages 10 to 30, and the incidence is the same in both sexes in this agegroup.

Immediate tightening, swelling, and increased mucus secretion occurs. Mast cell Allergens reenter the nose and mouth. Preformed mediators Newly formed mediators 6 Allergens attach to IgE antibodies, causing mast cells to release mediators. Best to keep those lungs and heart healthy!

Left ventricle Age-old story Age and cor pulmonale In children, cor pulmonale may be a complication of cystic fibrosis, hemosiderosis, upper-airway obstruction, scleroderma, extensive bronchiectasis, neuromuscular diseases that affect respiratory muscles, or abnormalities of the respiratory control area. Obstruction results from tissue changes, rather than mucus production, as occurs in asthma and chronic bronchitis.

The distinguishing characteristic of emphysema is airflow limitation caused by a lack of elastic recoil in the lungs. How it happens Emphysema may be caused by a deficiency of alpha1protease inhibitor or by cigarette smoking. In emphysema, recurrent inflammation is associated with the release of proteolytic enzymes enzymes that promote protein splitting by peptide bond hydrolysis from lung cells. This causes irreversible enlargement of the air spaces distal to the terminal bronchioles.

Enlargement of air spaces destroys the alveolar walls, which results in a breakdown of elasticity and the loss of fibrous and muscle tissues, making the lungs less compliant. The alveolar walls then lose their capability of elastic recoil. Collapse then occurs on expiration, as shown here.

Normal expiration Impaired expiration Note normal recoil and the open bronchiole. Note decreased elastic recoil and a narrowed bronchiole. Age-old story Age and emphysema Aging is a risk factor for emphysema. Senile emphysema results from degenerative changes; stretching occurs without destruction in the smooth muscle. It involves pulmonary, cerebral, and cutaneous manifestations and occurs 24 to 48 hours after a traumatic injury.

Influenza occurs sporadically or in epidemics appears as early as October; activity peaks in January. Epidemics usually peak in 2 to 3 weeks after initial cases appear and last 2 to 3 months. Influenza results from three types of virus.

Type C is endemic and causes only sporadic cases. When someone else breathes in these droplets or gets them on his hands and then touches his own mouth or nose, the virus can enter his body. The cells in these subtypes differ in size, shape, and chemical makeup and are described here. Although the cancer cells in this type of cancer are small, they can multiply quickly and form large tumors that spread to the lymph nodes and other structures, such as the brain, liver, and bones.

Almost all lung cancers start in the epithelium of the lungs. In normal lungs, the epithelium lines and protects the tissue below it. However, when exposed to irritants or carcinogens, the epithelium continually replaces itself until the cells develop chromosomal changes and become dysplastic altered in size, shape, and organization.

Eventually, the dysplastic cells turn into neoplastic carcinoma and start invading deeper tissues. It occurs in both genders and at all ages. More than 4 million cases of pneumonia occur annually in the United States. The prognosis is good for patients with normal lungs and adequate immune systems. However, bacterial pneumonia is the leading cause of death in debilitated patients. How it happens In bacterial pneumonia, an infection triggers alveolar inflammation and edema.

This produces an area of low ventilation with normal perfusion. Capillaries become engorged with blood, causing stasis. As the alveocapillary membrane breaks down, alveoli fill with blood and exudates, resulting in atelectasis. In viral pneumonia, the virus attacks bronchial epithelial cells, causing inflammation and desquamation. The virus also invades mucous glands and goblet cells, spreading to the alveoli, which fill with blood and fluid.

Bronchopneumonia involves distal airways and alveoli; lobular pneumonia, part of a lobe; and lobar pneumonia, an entire lobe. Location Type Primary pneumonia results from inhalation or aspiration of a pathogen, such as bacteria or a virus, and includes pneumococcal and viral pneumonia; secondary pneumonia may follow lung damage from a noxious chemical or other insult or may result from hematogenous spread of bacteria; aspiration pneumonia results from inhalation of foreign matter, such as vomitus or food particles, into the bronchi.

Respiratory disorders Pneumothorax Pneumothorax is an accumulation of air in the pleural cavity that leads to partial or complete lung collapse. The most common types of pneumothorax are open, closed, and tension. How it happens tmo en a ctly h w dire ults As x res lows hora ssure f essure. The air enters the pleural space from the site of pleural rupture, which acts as a one-way valve. More air enters on inspiration, and air pressure begins to exceed barometric pressure.

Increasing air pressure pushes against the recoiled lung, causing compression atelectasis. As air continues to accumulate and intrapleural pressures increase, the mediastinum shifts away from the affected side and decreases venous return. This forces the heart, trachea, esophagus, and great vessels to the unaffected side, compressing the heart and the contralateral lung.

This fluid is really accumulating! Pulmonary edema is a common complication of cardiac disorders. It may occur as a chronic condition or develop quickly and rapidly become fatal. A closer look Normal Capillary Hydrostatic pressure pushes fluids into the interstitial space. Alveolus Interstitial space Plasma oncotic pressure pulls fluids back into the bloodstream.

How it happens Pulmonary edema may result from left-sided heart failure caused by arteriosclerotic, cardiomyopathic, hypertensive, or valvular heart disease.

Normally, pulmonary capillary hydrostatic pressure, capillary oncotic pressure, capillary permeability, and lymphatic drainage are in balance. This prevents fluid infiltration to the lungs. When this balance changes, or if the lymphatic drainage system is obstructed, pulmonary edema results. If colloid osmotic pressure decreases, the hydrostatic force that regulates intravascular fluids is lost because nothing opposes it.

Fluid flows freely into the interstitium and alveoli, impairing gas exchange and leading to pulmonary edema. I think this guy needs help ASAP! How a pulmonary embolism develops I must have dislodged. I see the right chambers of the heart, and I seem to be headed right for the pulmonary circulation! Stuck on a branch in the circulatory system. I fear I may block blood flow distal to where I am. Of those, died. Severe acute respiratory syndrome SARS is a viral respiratory tract infection that can progress to pneumonia and, eventually, death.

The disease was first recognized in with outbreaks in China, Canada, Singapore, Taiwan, and Vietnam, with other countries—including the United States—reporting smaller numbers of cases. During the outbreak, SARS was found to be less common among children and to be milder in form in this age-group when it did occur.

The coronavirus that causes SARS is thought to be transmitted by respiratory droplets produced when an infected person coughs or sneezes. The virus can also spread when a person touches a surface or object contaminated with infectious droplets and then touches his mouth, nose, or eyes. The SARS virion removes the protein coating that protects its genetic material C , replicates D , and matures, and then escapes from the cell by budding from the plasma membrane E.

The infection then can spread to other host cells. Tuberculosis 69 Tuberculosis TB is an acute or chronic mycobacterium infection characterized by pulmonary infiltrates and the formation of granulomas with caseation, fibrosis, and cavitation.

How it happens Multiplication of the bacillus Mycobacterium tuberculosis causes an inflammatory process. A cell-mediated T-cell immune response follows that usually contains the infection within 4 to 6 weeks. The T-cell response results in the formation of granulomas around the bacilli, making them dormant.

Bacilli within granulomas may remain viable for many years, resulting in a positive purified protein derivative or other skin tests for TB. Transmission occurs when an infected person coughs or sneezes, which spreads infected droplets.

Upper respiratory tract infection also known as the common cold or acute coryza is an acute, usually afebrile viral infection that causes inflammation of the upper respiratory tract. Although a cold is benign and self-limiting, it can lead to secondary bacterial infections.

How it happens Infection occurs when the offending organism gains entry into the upper respiratory tract, proliferates, and begins an inflammatory reaction. As a result, acute inflammation of the upper airway structures, including the sinuses, nasopharynx, pharynx, larynx, and trachea, occurs. The presence of the pathogen triggers infiltration of the mucous membranes by inflammatory and infectionfighting cells. Mucosal swelling and secretion of a serous or mucopurulent exudate result. Solve the word scrambles to uncover terms related to respiratory disorders.

Then rearrange the circled letters from those words to answer the question posed. Show and tell Question: What condition discussed in this chapter is considered to be a chronic obstructive pulmonary disease? Identify the types of pneumothorax in these illustrations and describe each. This chapter has all the makings of a great script. The prognosis for this type of injury is usually excellent; symptoms usually subside when treated. I can just feel it!

A wedge-shaped deformity of the bone may be created if the anterior portions of the vertebra are crushed. A tear in the anterior ligament may pull pieces of bone from the cervical vertebrae. Spinous processes of the vertebrae may be fractured. Intervertebral disks may be compressed posteriorly and torn anteriorly. Vertebral arteries may be stretched, pinched, or torn, causing reduced blood flow to the brain. Nerves of the cervical sympathetic chain may also be injured. Injuries of the neck muscles may range from minor strains and microhemorrhages to severe tears.

Cortical degeneration is most marked in the frontal lobes, but atrophy occurs in all areas of the cortex. The more individuals in a family who have the disease, the greater the risk of others in the family developing it. Pay attention to the symptoms so you can classify the type.

A migraine headache is a throbbing, vascular headache that usually first appears in childhood and commonly recurs throughout adulthood. It may be classified according to the presence of an aura temporary focal neurologic signs, usually visual , such as scotoma an area of lost vision in the visual field , , , , , and colors.

A common migraine may not have an aura, whereas a classic migraine has an aura. Migraine headache is more common in women and has a strong familial incidence. How it happens Prostaglandin, a hormone present in the bloodstream, signals the platelets to aggregate.

Platelet aggregation causes the release of serotonin a chemical that transmits signals to nerves. Many things can affect the level of serotonin in the body, including blood glucose, certain foods, and changes in estrogen levels. In a migraine, serotonin levels in the body are increased. This increase in serotonin causes nerves to signal the blood vessels to vasoconstrict or decrease in diameter, which, in turn, causes a decrease in blood flow ischemia around the brain.

This localized ischemia causes an increase in acid acidosis. The localized acidosis and ischemia cause noninnervated no nerves and innervated blood vessels to dilate. Vasodilation of the innervated arteries results in the headache phase. Inflammation to the surrounding vessels may prolong the headache pain. Platelet aggregation then decreases, lowering the serotonin level, which results in vasodilation. A painful inflammation occurs around the surrounding areas, which can persist.

The structures usually involved are the optic and oculomotor nerves and the spinal nerve tracts. It is characterized by exacerbations and remissions. How it happens The exact cause of MS is unknown. It may be due to a slow-acting viral infection, an autoimmune response of the nervous system, or an allergic response.

Other possible causes include trauma, anoxia, toxins, nutritional deficiencies, vascular lesions, and anorexia nervosa, all of which may help destroy axons and the myelin sheath. In addition, emotional stress, overwork, fatigue, pregnancy, or an acute respiratory tract infection may precede the onset of MS. Genetic factors may also play a part. MS affects the white matter of the brain and spinal cord by creating scattered demyelinated lesions that prevent normal neurologic conduction.

After the myelin is destroyed, neuroglial tissue in the white matter of the CNS proliferates, forming hard yellow plaques of scar tissue. Scar tissue damages the underlying axon fiber, disrupting nerve conduction. This myelin destruction makes transmission of signals along the nerve difficult. These effects are exacerbated by exercise and repeated movement. Myasthenia gravis usually affects muscles in the face, lips, tongue, neck, and throat, which are innervated by the cranial nerves.

However, it can affect any muscle group. Eventually, muscle fibers may degenerate, and weakness especially of the head, neck, trunk, and limb muscles may become irreversible. When the disease involves the respiratory system, it may be life-threatening. Normal neuromuscular transmission Motor nerve impulses travel to motor nerve terminal.

ACh diffuses across synapse. ACh receptor sites in motor end plates depolarize muscle fiber. Depolarization spreads, causing muscle contraction. ACh is released. Neuromuscular transmission is blocked. Eventually, aspiration pneumonia or some other infection causes death. The extrapyramidal system includes the corpus striatum, globus pallidus, and substantia nigra. The normal balance upset prevents affected brain cells from performing their normal inhibitory function within the CNS and causes most parkinsonian symptoms.

That dopamine reduction in the corpus striatum will upset the balance! The prognosis is good if the patient adheres strictly to the prescribed treatment. Spread of electrical impulses What to look for Generalized seizures occur as the misfiring signals move across both hemispheres.

The patient loses consciousness. A simple-partial seizure begins in one hemisphere of the brain. It interrupts or diminishes oxygen supply, causing serious damage or necrosis in brain tissues. There are two main types: An ischemic stroke is caused by an interruption of blood flow in a cerebral vessel.

A hemorrhagic stroke is caused by bleeding into the cerebral tissue. Age and stroke Although strokes may occur in younger persons, most patients experiencing strokes are older than age In fact, the risk of stroke doubles with each passing decade after age How it happens Bacterial endocarditis Ball thrombus Atrial fibrillation 1 Cardiac thromboses develop as a result of various conditions.

Emboli break away from their site of origin and move from the heart into the general circulation. Plaque can also form in various areas, which can break off, causing an embolus. Depending on the size of the embolus and the vessel affected, the embolus can become stuck in the vessel, causing ischemia in Basilar the brain tissue supplied by the vessel.

Cerebral hemorrhage Subarachnoid hemorrhage A cerebral hemorrhage can occur like this one, which produced a hematoma that extended into the ventricle, almost rupturing it. Hypertension may cause microaneurysms and tiny arterioles to rupture in the brain, creating pressure on adjacent arterioles and causing them to burst, which leads to more bleeding.

Trauma can cause a subarachnoid hemorrhage, which places more pressure on brain tissue. After the pathogen enters the bloodstream, it travels to the brain and causes encephalitis. Mosquitos serve as the vectors, spreading the virus from bird to bird and from birds to people.

Fever Rashes Extreme fatigue Swollen lymph glands Head and Think fresh, then think about spring: springtime is the start of the West Nile season. In the illustration, label the brain structures. B Able to label? And try not to upset your GI system this time. Usually, a calculus gallstone becomes lodged in the cystic duct, causing painful gallbladder distention.

Cholecystitis may be acute or chronic. Understanding gallstone formation Abnormal metabolism of cholesterol and bile salts plays an important role in gallstone formation. The liver makes bile continuously. The gallbladder concentrates and stores it until the duodenum signals it needs bile to help digest fat. Changes in the composition of bile may allow gallstones to form.

Changes to the absorptive ability of the gallbladder lining may also contribute to gallstone formation. Cholesterol metabolism and bile salts seem to be main culprits at this point. How it happens Cholecystitis results from the formation of gallstones. Acute cholecystitis may also be due to poor or absent blood flow to the gallbladder. Excessive reabsorption of water and bile salts makes the bile less soluble. Cholesterol, calcium, and bilirubin precipitate into gallstones.

Fat entering the duodenum causes the intestinal mucosa to secrete the hormone cholecystokinin, which stimulates the gallbladder to contract and empty. Obstructing gallstone Age-old story Age and cholecystitis The acute form of cholecystitis is most common during middle age; the chronic form occurs most often in elderly people. This causes scar tissue, fluid accumulation, cirrhosis, portal hypertension, and bleeding.

Bilirubin is absorbed into the blood and causes jaundice. Biliary narrowing and swelling of the tissue around the stone can also cause irritation and inflammation of the common bile duct.

Many causes of chronic liver injury can lead to cirrhosis. The two most common causes of chronic liver injury in the United States are alcoholic liver disease and hepatitis C. Alcohol is not a friend, especially if the person is male and middle-aged. Nutrition plays a role in nutritional cirrhosis. This spread would have done a cirrhosis patient some good! It commonly begins as a polyp and is potentially curable if diagnosed early. Types of colorectal cancer Transverse colon Adenocarcinoma of colon Ascending colon Vermiform appendix How it happens The exact cause of colorectal cancer is unknown.

Bacteria have been associated with the conversion of bile acids into carcinogens, and a diet high in refined sugar aids in this process. How much farther?? It may affect any part of the gastrointestinal GI tract. Inflammation extends through all layers of the intestinal wall and may involve lymph nodes and supporting membranes. Ulcers form as the inflammation extends into the peritoneum.

Lymphatic obstruction causes edema, mucosal ulceration, fissures, abscesses and, sometimes, granulomas. End 6 Eventually, diseased parts of the bowel become thicker, narrower, and shorter and can lead to formation of strictures. Diverticula occur most commonly in the sigmoid colon, but they may develop anywhere, from the proximal end of the pharynx to the anus. Diverticular disease has two clinical forms: 1 2 diverticulosis—diverticula are present but produce no symptoms diverticulitis—inflamed diverticula that may cause potentially fatal obstruction, infection, and hemorrhage.

How it happens Diverticula probably result from high intraluminal pressure on an area of weakness in the GI wall where blood vessels enter. Diet may be a contributing factor because insufficient fiber reduces fecal residue, narrows the bowel lumen, and leads to high intra-abdominal pressure during defecation.

In diverticulitis, retained undigested food and bacteria accumulate in the diverticular sac. This hard mass cuts off the blood supply to the thin walls of the sac, making them more susceptible to attack by colonic bacteria. Inflammation follows and may lead to perforation, abscess, peritonitis, obstruction, or hemorrhage. Occasionally, the inflamed colon segment may adhere to the bladder or other organs and cause a fistula. Age-old story Age and diverticular disease Diverticular disease is most prevalent in men older than age 40 and in people who eat a lowfiber diet.

More than one-half of all people older than age 50 have colonic diverticula. Diverticulosis What to look for Diverticulitis Typically the patient with diverticulosis is asymptomatic and will remain so unless diverticulitis develops.

Esophageal varices commonly cause massive hematemesis vomiting of blood , requiring emergency care to control hemorrhage and prevent hypovolemic shock. Esophageal varices can require emergency care if massive hemorrhage occurs. How it happens Portal hypertension occurs when blood meets increased resistance.

As pressure in the portal vein increases, blood backs up into the spleen and flows through collateral channels to the venous system, bypassing the liver.

Esophageal varices have two main inflows—the left gastric or coronary vein and the splenic hilus, through the short gastric veins. These collateral veins become dilated and eventually hemorrhage; esophageal varices are very susceptible to bleeding and hemorrhage.

I get totally passed by when portal hypertension occurs. Bad news for the esophagus. This common result of cirrhosis may also stem from mechanical obstruction and occlusion of the hepatic veins Budd-Chiari syndrome. As the pressure in the portal vein rises, blood backs up into the spleen and flows through collateral channels to the venous system, bypassing the liver.

In many patients, the first sign of portal hypertension is bleeding esophageal varices dilated tortuous veins in the submucosa of the lower esophagus. Esophageal varices commonly cause massive hematemesis, requiring emergency care to control hemorrhage and prevent hypovolemic shock. The sauce was pretty garlicky… Popularly known as heartburn, gastroesophageal reflux disease GERD refers to the backflow of gastric and duodenal contents past the lower esophageal sphincter LES and into the esophagus without associated belching or vomiting.

The reflux of gastric contents causes acute epigastric pain, usually after a meal. The pain may radiate to the chest or arms. Esophagus Diaphragm Typically, the sphincter relaxes after each swallow to allow food into the stomach. Viral hepatitis is a common infection of the liver. In most patients, liver cells hepatocytes damaged by hepatitis eventually regenerate with little or no permanent damage.

However, old age and serious underlying disorders make complications more likely. How it happens The virus causes hepatocyte injury and death, either by directly killing the cells or by activating inflammatory and immune reactions. The inflammatory and immune reactions, in turn, injure or destroy hepatocytes by causing the infected or neighboring cells to disintegrate. Later, direct antibody attack against the viral antigens causes further destruction of the infected cells.

Edema and swelling of the interstitium lead to collapse of capillaries, decreased blood flow, tissue hypoxia, scarring, and fibrosis. Gastrointestinal disorders Intestinal obstruction Intestinal obstruction is the partial or complete blockage of the lumen in the small or large bowel. Small-bowel obstruction is far more common and usually more serious. Complete obstruction in any part of the small or large bowel, if untreated, can cause death within hours due to shock and vascular collapse.

Intestinal obstruction is most likely to occur after abdominal surgery or in persons with congenital bowel deformities. Obstruction in the small intestine results in metabolic alkalosis from dehydration and loss of gastric hydrochloric acid; lower-bowel obstruction causes slower dehydration and loss of intestinal alkaline fluids, resulting in metabolic acidosis.

Ultimately, intestinal obstruction may lead to ischemia, necrosis, and death. Intestinal obstruction develops in three forms. Simple—Blockage prevents intestinal contents from passing, with no other complications. Strangulated— In addition to blockage of the lumen, blood supply to part or all of the obstructed section is cut off. Close-looped— Both ends of a bowel section are occluded, isolating it from the rest of the intestine. Hernia inguinal ; the sac of the hernia is a continuation of the peritoneum of the abdomen.

The hernial contents are intestine, omentum, or other abdominal contents that pass through the hernial opening into the hernial sac.

How it happens The physiologic effects are similar in all three forms of obstruction. When intestinal obstruction occurs, fluid, air, and gas collect near the obstruction. Peristalsis increases temporarily as the bowel tries to force its contents through the obstruction, injuring intestinal mucosa and causing distention at and above the site of the obstruction. Distention blocks the flow of venous blood and halts normal absorptive processes; as a result, the bowel wall becomes edematous and begins to secrete water, sodium, and potassium into the fluid pooled in the lumen.

Fluid, gas, and air collect behind obstruction. With no treatment, severe hypovolemia occurs. Gas-forming bacteria collect above obstruction, increasing distention.

It invariably begins in the rectum and sigmoid colon, rarely affecting the small intestine, except for the terminal ileum. Ulcerative colitis produces edema leading to mucosal friability and ulcerations. Cut off text due to tight binding. Obscured text on leaf Uploaded by station Internet Archive's 25th Anniversary Logo. Search icon An illustration of a magnifying glass. User icon An illustration of a person's head and chest. Sign up Log in. Web icon An illustration of a computer application window Wayback Machine Texts icon An illustration of an open book.

Expanded, updated, and now in full color throughout, this Fourth Edition presents vital pathophysiology information in an easy-to-understand, easy-to-remember, entertaining, and practical manner. Chapters cover cancer, infection, immune disorders, genetics, blood, and disorders of each body system, highlighting pathophysiologic processes, signs and symptoms, diagnostic test findings, and current treatments.

Illustrations, memory joggers, and other special features help readers understand and remember key points.

This edition's expanded cancer chapter covers more types of cancer. A companion website on thePoint will offer additional information, illustrations, memory joggers, and study cards. A comprehensive guide to pathology uses cartoons and detailed illustrations to help explain basic concepts, presenting symptoms, risk factors, and causes of disorders and diseases that occur all over the body.

Fully revised and updated, Pathophysiology Made Incredibly Visual, Second Edition, offers an innovative visual approach to mastering the principles of pathophysiology. Using the Incredibly Easy!

Hundreds of detailed color photographs, diagrams, charts, and other visual aids clarify essential pathophysiology concepts, and key terms and concept are clearly explained. Special sections present visual mnemonics and reinforce key points, including a summary of risk factors for each clinical disorder.

Like the Incredibly Easy series, the Incredibly Visual series takes difficult clinical topics and presents them in a clear, concise, easy-to-understand manner. The highly visual nature of this book makes anatomy and physiology fundamentals accessible to the reader in a unique and interesting way that enables quick review and comprehension as well as practical application.

For each body system, the book logically first presents anatomic fundamentals necessary to understand the complex physiology of the body. Then physiologic processes are presented more visually than ever before. This new approach to clinical content maximizes the power of visual thinking by getting readers as close to the clinical content as they can get without actually being in the room with a patient.

Complex ideas are broken down into their component parts, with each component made unmistakably simple in appealingly colorful and graphic ways. Readers will read less, understand more, and see things more clearly than every before. A companion website is available with fully-searchable text. Pathophysiology Made Incredibly Easy! Third Edition provides up-to-the-minute, comprehensive information on pathophysiology in a practical, easy-to-understand, and entertaining manner.

Chapters cover cancer, infection, immune disorders, genetics, and disorders of each body system, highlighting pathophysiologic processes, resulting signs and symptoms, diagnostic test findings, and current treatments. Reader-friendly features include illustrations, checklists, and full-color miniguides illustrating the pathophysiology of specific disorders. This edition has new full-color miniguides on cancer pathophysiology and neuropathology. A new Focus on Genetics feature identifies gene-related discoveries and their implications for treatment or diagnosis.

Health Assessment Made Incredibly Visual maximizes visual learning to help nurses master patient assessment. The book features: Hundreds of detailed and colorful photographs, diagrams, charts, and other visual aids guide nurses through each step of performing a head-to-toe physical examination. Aids nurses in identifying normal and abnormal findings. Light-hearted logos reinforce key points, and Best Picture graphically displays the best way to perform a technique.

Take Note features lifelike charts showing how to document findings.